The developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions.

“…Additionally, male adolescents might be less susceptible to parental influences. We found no evidence for EC transmission in adolescence, but prior research suggests that this might occur at an earlier age (Knafo et al, 2008). Alternatively, if some parenting behaviors stimulate EC while others reduce it, suppression might render the effect undetectable (Strayer & Roberts, 2004).…”

“…Although the meaning or function of comfort‐seeking behavior at 18–30 months needs to be interpreted with children's developmental needs and capacities in mind, our findings generally support the view that personal distress (e.g., comfort seeking) and other‐oriented responding (e.g., hypothesis testing) tend to be inversely related and that sympathetic concern, but not personal distress, is consistently related to prosocial behavior, at least by 30 months of age. This finding is consistent with theoretical expectations and others' findings (e.g., Hoffman, 2000; Knafo et al., 2008). Perhaps personal distress was unrelated to helping in the present study because the indices of personal distress reflected not only distressed responding but also the tendency to try to regulate that distress.…”

“…Our results were in line with findings in previous studies (Gill & Calkins, 2003;Rhee, et al, 2013;Roth-Hanania, et al, 2011;Vaish, et al, 2009). However, the majority of studies have shown higher levels of empathy in girls than in boys from birth onwards (Christov-Moore, et al, 2014;Hastings, et al, 2000;Knafo, et al, 2008;Spinrad & Stifter, 2006;Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, et al, 1992;Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, et al, 1992). Possibly, sex differences in empathy have been masked by differences in social inhibition between boys and girls in response to the distress simulation task.…”